Merchant & Van Der Stede. (2012). Management Control Systems. Download UPDATED

Merchant & Van Der Stede. (2012). Management Control Systems. Download

Businessperson who trades in commodities that were produced by others

Merchants from Holland and the Middle East trading.

A merchant is a person who trades in bolt produced by other people, especially i who trades with foreign countries. Historically, a merchant is anyone who is involved in business organization or merchandise. Merchants have operated for equally long as industry, commerce, and trade have existed. In 16th-century Europe, two dissimilar terms for merchants emerged: meerseniers referred to local traders (such every bit bakers and grocers) and koopman (Dutch: koopman) referred to merchants who operated on a global stage, importing and exporting goods over vast distances and offer added-value services such as credit and finance.

The status of the merchant has varied during different periods of history and among unlike societies. In modernistic times, the term merchant has occasionally been used to refer to a businessperson or someone undertaking activities (commercial or industrial) for the purpose of generating profit, greenbacks flow, sales, and revenue using a combination of human, financial, intellectual and physical capital with a view to fueling economic development and growth.

A scale or balance is often used to symbolise a merchant

Merchants take been known for equally long as humans have engaged in merchandise and commerce. Merchants and merchant networks operated in ancient Babylonia and Assyria, China, Egypt, Greece, India, Persia, Phoenicia, and Rome. During the European medieval period, a rapid expansion in trade and commerce led to the rise of a wealthy and powerful merchant class. The European age of discovery opened up new trading routes and gave European consumers access to a much broader range of goods. From the 1600s, goods began to travel much farther distances equally they establish their way into geographically dispersed market place-places. Following the opening of Asia to European trade and the discovery of the New Globe, merchants imported goods over very long distances: calico material from India, porcelain, silk and tea from China, spices from India and South-East Asia and tobacco, sugar, rum and coffee from the New World. By the eighteenth century, a new type of manufacturer-merchant had started to emerge and mod business practices were condign evident.

Etymology and usage

Costumes of merchants from Brabant and Antwerp, engraving past Abraham de Bruyn, 1577

The English term, merchant comes from the Centre English language, marchant , which itself originated from the Vulgar Latin mercatant or mercatans , formed from present participle of mercatare ('to trade, to traffic or to deal in').^[1] The term refers to whatsoever type of reseller, but tin can as well be used with a specific qualifier to advise a person who deals in a given characteristic such as speed merchant, which refer to someone who enjoys fast driving; racket merchant, which refers to a group of musical performers;^[2] dream merchant, which refers to someone who peddles idealistic visionary scenarios; merchant of war, which refers disparagingly to proponents of war.^{[ citation needed ]}

Elizabeth Honig has argued that concepts relating to the office of a merchant began to change in the mid-16th century. The Dutch term, koopman , became rather more than fluid during the 16th century when Antwerp was the nigh global marketplace boondocks in Europe. Two dissimilar terms, for a merchant, began to be used, meerseniers referred to local merchants including bakers, grocers, sellers of dairy products and stall-holders, while the alternate term, koopman , referred to those who traded in goods or credit on a big calibration. This distinction was necessary to dissever the daily trade that the general population understood from the rising ranks of traders who took up their places on a world stage and were seen as quite distant from everyday feel.^[iii]

Types of merchant

Broadly, merchants can be classified into two categories:

• A wholesale merchant operates in the chain between the producer and retail merchant, typically dealing in big quantities of goods.^[4] In other words, a wholesaler does non sell directly to stop-users. Some wholesale merchants only organize the move of goods rather than move the appurtenances themselves.
• A retail merchant or retailer sells merchandise to end-users or consumers (including businesses), usually in small quantities. A store-keeper is an case of a retail merchant.

However, the term 'merchant' is often used in a diverseness of specialised contexts such as in merchant banker, merchant navy or merchant services.

History

Merchants in antiquity

Phoenician trade route map

Merchants accept existed equally long every bit humans have conducted concern, trade or commerce.^{[5] [6] [7] [8] [ix] [x]} A merchant class operated in many pre-modern societies. Open up-air, public markets, where merchants and traders congregated, functioned in ancient Babylonia and Assyria, Mainland china, Egypt, Greece, Bharat, Persia, Phoenicia and Rome. These markets typically occupied a place in the town's centre. Surrounding the marketplace, skilled artisans, such every bit metal-workers and leather workers, occupied bounds in alley means that led to the open marketplace-place. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, but also prepared goods for sale on market days.^{[eleven] [ need quotation to verify ]} In ancient Hellenic republic markets operated within the agora (open space), and in ancient Rome in the forum. Rome'southward forums included the Forum Romanum, the Forum Boarium and Trajan's Forum. The Forum Boarium, one of a serial of fora venalia or food markets, originated, as its name suggests, equally a cattle market.^[12] Trajan's Forum was a vast expanse, comprising multiple buildings with shops on 4 levels. The Roman forum was arguably the earliest example of a permanent retail shop-front.^[13]

In antiquity, substitution involved directly selling through permanent or semi-permanent retail premises such as stall-holders at market places or shop-keepers selling from their own bounds or through door-to-door directly sales via merchants or peddlers.^{[ citation needed ]} The nature of direct selling centred around transactional substitution, where the appurtenances were on open display, allowing buyers to evaluate quality straight through visual inspection. Relationships between merchant and consumer were minimal^[14] often playing into public concerns about the quality of produce.^[15]

Phoenician merchants traded across the unabridged Mediterranean region

The Phoenicians became well known amongst contemporaries equally "traders in purple" – a reference to their monopoly over the imperial dye extracted from the murex shell.^[16] The Phoenicians plied their ships across the Mediterranean, condign a major trading power by the 9th century BCE. Phoenician merchant traders imported and exported woods, textiles, drinking glass and produce such every bit vino, oil, dried fruit and nuts. Their trading necessitated a network of colonies along the Mediterranean coast, stretching from modern-day Crete through to Tangiers (in nowadays-mean solar day Kingdom of morocco) and north to Sardinia.^[17] The Phoenicians not simply traded in tangible goods, merely were also instrumental in transporting the trappings of civilisation. The Phoenicians' extensive merchandise networks necessitated considerable book-keeping and correspondence. In effectually 1500 BCE, the Phoenicians adult a script which was much easier to learn that the pictographic systems used in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Phoenician traders and merchants were largely responsible for spreading their alphabet around the region.^[18] Phoenician inscriptions have been found in archaeological sites at a number of former Phoenician cities and colonies around the Mediterranean, such as Byblos (in present-day Lebanon) and Carthage in North Africa.^[xix]

Wall painting from Pompeii depicting every day activities at a market place-place

Mosaic showing garum container, from the firm of Umbricius Scaurus of Pompeii. The inscription which reads "Thou(ari) F(los) SCO(mbri) SCAURI EX OFFI(CI)NA SCAURI" has been translated as "The flower of garum, fabricated of the mackerel, a product of Scaurus, from the shop of Scaurus"

The social status of the merchant class varied across cultures; ranging from high status (the members even eventually achieving titles such as that of Merchant Prince or Nabob) to low status, equally in Cathay, Hellenic republic and Roman cultures, owing to the presumed distastefulness of profiting from "mere" trade rather than from labor or the labor of others as in agriculture and craftsmanship.^[20] The Romans defined merchants or traders in a very narrow sense. Merchants were those who bought and sold appurtenances, while landowners who sold their own produce were not classed as merchants. Being a landowner was a "respectable" occupation. On the other hand, the Romans did non consider the activities of merchants "respectable".^[21] In the ancient cities of the Middle East, where the bazaar was the urban center'southward focal point and heartbeat, merchants who worked in bazaar enjoyed high social status and formed part of local elites.^[22] In Medieval Western Europe, the Christian church, which closely associated merchants' activities with the sin of usury, criticised the merchant class, strongly influencing attitudes towards them.^[23]

In Greco-Roman society, merchants typically did not accept high social status, though they may have enjoyed great wealth.^[24] Umbricius Scauras, for instance, was a manufacturer and trader of fish sauce (also known every bit garum) in Pompeii, circa 35 C.E. His villa, situated in one of the wealthier districts of Pompeii, was very large and ornately decorated in a testify of substantial personal wealth. Mosaic patterns in the floor of his atrium were busy with images of amphorae begetting his personal brand and inscribed with quality claims. One of the inscriptions on the mosaic amphora reads "One thousand(ari) F(los) SCO[one thousand]/ SCAURI/ EX OFFI[ci]/NA SCAU/RI" which translates as "The blossom of garum, made of the mackerel, a production of Scaurus, from the store of Scaurus". Scauras' fish sauce had a reputation for very high quality across the Mediterranean; its fame travelled every bit far abroad as modern southern France.^[25] Other notable Roman merchants included: Marcus Julius Alexander (sixteen – 44 CE), Sergius Orata (fl. c. 95 BCE) and Annius Plocamus (1st century CE).^{[ citation needed ]}

In the Roman globe, local merchants served the needs of the wealthier landowners. While the local peasantry, who were generally poor, relied on open-air market places to buy and sell produce and wares, major producers such every bit the great estates were sufficiently attractive for merchants to call directly at their farm-gates. The very wealthy landowners managed their own distribution, which may have involved exporting.^[26] Markets were too of import centres of social life, and merchants helped to spread news and gossip.^[27]

The nature of consign markets in antiquity is well documented in ancient sources and in archaeological example-studies. Both Greek and Roman merchants engaged in long-altitude trade. A Chinese text records that a Roman merchant named Lun reached southern China in 226 CE. Archaeologists accept recovered Roman objects dating from the period 27 BCE to 37 CE from digging sites as far afield as the Kushan and Indus ports. The Romans sold purple and yellow dyes, brass and atomic number 26; they acquired incense, balsam, expensive liquid myrrh and spices from the Near East and India, fine silk from People's republic of china^[28] and fine white marble destined for the Roman wholesale market place from Arabia.^[29] For Roman consumers, the buy of appurtenances from the Eastward was a symbol of social prestige.^[30]

Merchants in the medieval menses

Marco Polo was amid the earliest European merchants to travel to the Orient, helping to open information technology upward to merchandise in the 13th century

Medieval England and Europe witnessed a rapid expansion in trade and the ascension of a wealthy and powerful merchant form. Blintiff has investigated the early Medieval networks of market towns and suggests that by the 12th century there was an upsurge in the number of market towns and the emergence of merchant circuits as traders bulked up surpluses from smaller regional, different day markets and resold them at the larger centralised market place towns. Peddlers or afoot merchants filled any gaps in the distribution system.^[31] From the 11th century, the Crusades helped to open up upwards new trade routes in the Near East, while the adventurer and merchant, Marco Polo stimulated interest in the far Eastward in the 13th century. Medieval merchants began to trade in exotic goods imported from distant shores including spices, wine, food, furs, fine fabric (notably silk), drinking glass, jewellery and many other luxury appurtenances. Market place towns began to spread across the landscape during the medieval period.^{[ citation needed ]}

Merchant guilds began to course during the Medieval menses. A fraternity formed past the merchants of Tiel in Gelderland (in present-twenty-four hour period Netherlands) in 1020 is believed to be the offset example of a gild. The term, society was offset used for gilda mercatoria and referred to trunk of merchants operating out of St. Omer, French republic in the 11th century. Similarly, London'southward Hanse was formed in the 12th century.^[32] These guilds controlled the way that merchandise was to be conducted and codified rules governing the conditions of trade. Rules established by merchant guilds were frequently incorporated into the charters granted to marketplace towns. In the early 12th century, a confederation of merchant guilds, formed out the German cities of Lübeck and Hamburg, known every bit "The Hanseatic League" came to dominate merchandise around the Baltic Ocean. By the 13th and 14th centuries, merchant guilds had sufficient resources to accept erected gild halls in many major market towns.^[33]

During the thirteenth century, European businesses became more permanent and were able to maintain sedentary merchants and a arrangement of agents. Merchants specialised in financing, system and ship while agents were domiciled overseas and acted on behalf of a principal. These arrangements starting time appeared on the route from Italy to the Levant, but by the end of the thirteenth century merchant colonies could be plant from Paris, London, Bruges, Seville, Barcelona and Montpellier. Over time these partnerships became more than commonplace and led to the development of large trading companies. These developments likewise triggered innovations such equally double-entry book-keeping, commercial accountancy, international banking including admission to lines of credit, marine insurance and commercial courier services. These developments are sometimes known equally the commercial revolution. ^[34]

Luca Clerici has made a detailed report of Vicenza'south nutrient market during the sixteenth century. He establish that at that place were many dissimilar types of merchants operating out of the markets. For case, in the dairy trade, cheese and butter was sold by the members of 2 arts and crafts guilds (i.e., cheesemongers who were shopkeepers) and that of the so-called 'resellers' (hucksters selling a wide range of foodstuffs), and by other sellers who were non enrolled in any club. Cheesemongers' shops were situated at the town hall and were very lucrative. Resellers and direct sellers increased the number of sellers, thus increasing competition, to the benefit of consumers. Straight sellers, who brought produce from the surrounding countryside, sold their wares through the cardinal market identify and priced their goods at considerably lower rates than cheesemongers.^[35]

From 1300 through to the 1800s a large number of European chartered and merchant companies were established to exploit international trading opportunities. The Company of Merchant Adventurers of London, chartered in 1407, controlled almost of the fine material imports^[36] while the Hanseatic League controlled most of the merchandise in the Baltic Sea. A detailed study of European trade betwixt the thirteenth and fifteenth century demonstrates that the European age of discovery acted as a major driver of alter. In 1600, goods travelled relatively short distances: grain 5–x miles; cattle 40–70 miles; wool and wollen fabric xx–xl miles. However, in the years post-obit the opening up of Asia and the discovery of the New Globe, appurtenances were imported from very long distances: calico cloth from India, porcelain, silk and tea from China, spices from India and South-Eastern asia and tobacco, saccharide, rum and coffee from the New World.^[37]

In Mesoamerica, a tiered system of traders developed independently. The local markets, where people purchased their daily needs were known equally tianguis while pochteca referred to long-distance, professional person merchants traders who obtained rare goods and luxury items desired by the nobility. This trading system supported various levels of pochteca – from very high status merchants through to pocket-sized traders who acted equally a blazon of peddler to fill in gaps in the distribution system.^[38] The Spanish conquerors commented on the impressive nature of the local and regional markets in the 15th century. The Mexica (Aztec) market of Tlatelolco was the largest in all the Americas and said to be superior to those in Europe.^[39]

In much of Renaissance Europe and even subsequently, merchant trade remained seen as a lowly profession and information technology was frequently subject to legal discrimination or restrictions, although in a few areas its status began to better.^{[40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45]}

Merchants in the modern era

The modern era is generally understood to refer to period that started with the ascension of consumer civilisation in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Europe.^{[46] [ need quotation to verify ]} As standards of living improved in the 17th century, consumers from a wide range of social backgrounds began to purchase goods that were in excess of basic necessities. An emergent middle class or bourgeoisie stimulated demand for luxury goods, and the act of shopping came to be seen as a pleasurable pastime or grade of amusement.^[47]

Merchants engaged in international trade began to develop a more outward-looking mindset

As Britain connected colonial expansion, large commercial organisations came to provide a market for more than sophisticated data about trading conditions in foreign lands. Daniel Defoe (c. 1660–1731), a London merchant, published information on trade and economic resource of England, Scotland and Republic of india.^{[48] [49]} Defoe was a prolific pamphleteer. His many publications include titles devoted to trade, including: Merchandise of Britain Stated (1707); Merchandise of Scotland with France (1713); The Trade to Bharat Critically and Calmly Considered (1720) and A Plan of the English Commerce (1731); all pamphlets that became highly popular with contemporary merchants and business concern houses.^[50]

Armenians operated equally a prominent trade nation during the 17th century. They stood out in international trade due to their vast network – mostly built by Armenian migrants spread across Eurasia. Armenians had established prominent trade-relations with all big export players such as India, Prc, Persia, the Ottoman Empire, England, Venice, the Levant, etc. Shortly they captured Eastern and Western Europe, Russia, the Levant, the Middle East, Central Asia, India, and the Far Due east trade routes, conveying out mostly caravan-trade activities. A pregnant reason for Armenians' massive involvement in international trade was their geographic location – the Armenian lands stand at the crossroads betwixt Asia and Europe. Some other reason was their religion, equally they were a Christian nation isolated betwixt Muslim Iran and Muslim Turkey. European Christians preferred to carry out trade with Christians in the region.^[51]

Eighteenth-century merchants who traded in foreign markets developed a network of relationships which crossed national boundaries, religious affiliations, family unit ties, and gender. The historian, Vannneste, has argued that a new "cosmopolitan merchant mentality" based on trust, reciprocity and a civilisation of communal support developed and helped to unify the early on modern earth. Given that these cosmopolitan merchants were embedded within their societies and participated in the highest level of substitution, they transferred a more outward-looking mindset and arrangement of values to their commercial-exchange transactions, and also helped to disseminate a more than global awareness to broader society and therefore acted as agents of change for local order. Successful, open-minded cosmopolitan merchants began to acquire a more esteemed social position inside the political elites. They were frequently sought as advisors for high-level political agents.^[52] The English language nabobs belong to this era.

By the eighteenth century, a new blazon of manufacturer-merchant was emerging and modern concern practices were becoming evident. Many merchants held showcases of goods in their private homes for the do good of wealthier clients.^[53] Samuel Pepys, for case, writing in 1660, describes being invited to the home of a retailer to view a wooden jack.^[54] McKendrick, Brewer and Plumb establish all-encompassing evidence of eighteenth-century English entrepreneurs and merchants using "modern" marketing techniques, including production differentiation, sales promotion and loss-leader pricing.^[55] English language industrialists, Josiah Wedgewood (1730–1795) and Matthew Boulton (1728–1809), are often portrayed as pioneers of modern mass-marketing methods.^[56] Wedgewood was known to take used marketing techniques such as direct mail, travelling salesmen and catalogues in the eighteenth century.^[57] Wedgewood also carried out serious investigations into the stock-still and variable costs of product and recognised that increased production would lead to lower unit of measurement-costs. He likewise inferred that selling at lower prices would lead to higher demand and recognised the value of achieving  scale economies in product. By cutting costs and lowering prices, Wedgewood was able to generate higher overall profits.^[58] Similarly, one of Wedgewood's contemporaries, Matthew Boulton, pioneered early mass-production techniques and product differentiation at his Soho Manufacturing plant in the 1760s. He also proficient planned obsolescence and understood the importance of "glory marketing" – that is supplying the nobility, frequently at prices below cost – and of obtaining purple patronage, for the sake of the publicity and kudos generated.^[59] Both Wedgewood and Boulton staged expansive showcases of their wares in their private residences or in rented halls.^[lx]

Eighteenth-century American merchants, who had been operating every bit importers and exporters, began to specialise in either wholesale or retail roles. They tended not to specialise in particular types of trade, oft trading as full general merchants, selling a diverse range of production types. These merchants were concentrated in the larger cities. They often provided loftier levels of credit financing for retail transactions.^[61]

In the nineteenth century, merchants and merchant houses played a function in opening up People's republic of china and the Pacific to Anglo-American trade interests. Note for case Jardine Matheson & Co. and the merchants of New South Wales. Other merchants profited from natural resources (the Hudson's Bay Visitor theoretically controlled much of North America, names like Rockefeller and Nobel dominated trade in oil in the US and in the Russian Empire), while still others fabricated fortunes from exploiting new inventions – selling space on and commodities carried by railways and steamships.

In fully planned economies of the 20th century, planners replaced merchants in organising the distribution of goods and services.^[62]

However, merchants, increasingly labelled with euphemisms such as "industrialists", "businessmen", "entrepreneurs" or "oligarchs",^[63] continue their activities in the 21st century. The wealth and influence of figures such as Jeff Bezos, Neb Gates and Jack Ma prove to the ongoing importance of merchandising.

In art

Elizabeth Honig has argued that artists, especially the Dutch painters of Antwerp, developed a fascination with merchants from the mid-16th century. At this fourth dimension, the economy was undergoing profound changes – capitalism emerged every bit the dominant social system replacing before modes of production. Merchants were importing produce from afar – grain from the Baltic, textiles from England, wine from Germany and metals from various countries. Antwerp was the eye of this new commercial world. The public began to distinguish between 2 types of merchant, the eerseniers who were local merchants including bakers, grocers, sellers of dairy products and stall-holders, and the koopman, which were a new, emergent class of trader who dealt in goods or credit on a large scale. With the rise of a European merchant course, this distinction was necessary to separate the daily merchandise that the general population understood from the rising ranks of traders who operated on a world phase and were seen every bit quite distant from everyday experience.^[64] The wealthier merchants also had the means to commission artworks with the event that individual merchants and their families became important discipline affair for artists. For case, Hans Holbein the younger painted a series of portraits of Hanseatic merchants working out of London'southward Steelyard in the 1530s.^[65] These included including Georg Giese of Danzig; Hillebrant Wedigh of Cologne; Dirk Tybis of Duisburg; Hans of Antwerp, Hermann Wedigh, Johann Schwarzwald, Cyriacus Kale, Derich Built-in and Derick Berck.^[66] Paintings of groups of merchants, notably officers of the merchant guilds, as well became bailiwick thing for artists and documented the rise of important mercantile organisations.^{[ commendation needed ]}

In contempo art: Dutch photographer Loes Heerink spend hours on bridges in Hanoi to take pictures of Vietnamese street Merchants. She published a volume called Merchants in Motion: the art of Vietnamese Street Vendors.^[67]

• 

• 

• 

  Portrait of Nicolaes van der Borght, merchant of Antwerp by Van Dyk, 1625–35

• 

  Portrait of the material merchant, Abraham del Court and his wife Maria de Keerssegieter by Bartelmeus van der Helst, c. 1654

• 

  Frederick Rihel, a merchant on horseback by Rembrandt, c. 1663

• 

  Portrait of Amsterdam merchant, Cornelis Nuyts (1574-1661) by Jürgen Ovens

• 

• 

  Merchant Sytov by anonymous (Rybinsk museum), mid-19th century

• 

• 

  Four officers of the Amsterdam Coopers and vino-rackers Guild by Gerbrand Jansz van den Eeckhout, c. 1660

In architecture

Although merchant halls were known in antiquity, they cruel into disuse and were not reinvented until Europe'due south Medieval period.^[68] During the 12th century, powerful guilds which controlled the manner that trade was conducted were established and were often incorporated into the charters granted to market towns. Past the 13th and 14th centuries, merchant guilds had caused sufficient resources to erect guild halls in many major market towns.^[69] Many buildings have retained the names derived from their former use as the home or place of business concern of merchants:^{[ citation needed ]}

• 

• 

  Tudor Merchant's Hall, Southampton, England

• 

  Drapers' Hall, Coventry, England

• 

  The Blacksmiths' Guild Hall, Venice, Italy

• 

  Shoemakers' Society Hall, Venice, Italy

• 

  Brodhaus, Bakers' Lodge, Einbeck, Germany

• 

  Knochenhaueramtshaus, Butcher'south guild hall, Hildesheim, Germany

• 

  The Butcher's Hall, Antwerp, Kingdom of belgium

• 

  The Hanseatic League Building, Antwerp, 16th century

Come across as well

• Businessperson
• Capitalism
• Chapmen
• Commerce
• Costermonger
• Distribution
• Entrepreneur
• Gratuitous market
• Costless merchandise
• Order
• Guildhall
• Hawker
• History of marketing
• Judaism
• Licensed victualler
• Market (identify)
• Mercantilism
• Merchant account
• Merchant marine
• Peddler
• Phoenicians and wine
• Pochteca
• Retail
• Roman commerce
• Barker (occupation)

References

References

1. ^ Merriam-Webster Lexicon, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/merchant
2. ^ Online Dictionary of Etymology, http://world wide web.etymonline.com/index.php?term=merchant
3. ^ Honig, E.A., Painting & the Market place in Early Modern Antwerp, Yale University Press, 1998, pp 4–10
4. ^ Longman Dictionary of Gimmicky English, 2013. mer‧chant
5. ^ Demirdjian, Z. Southward., "Rise and Fall of Marketing in Mesopotamia: A Conundrum in the Cradle of Civilization," In The Hereafter of Marketing's Past: Proceedings of the 12th Annual Conference on Historical Analysis and Research in Marketing, Leighton Neilson (ed.), CA, Longman, Association for Analysis and Research in Marketing, 2005
6. ^ Rahul Oka & Chapurukha One thousand. Kusimba, "The Archaeology of Trading Systems, Function ane: Towards a New Merchandise Synthesis," The Archaeology of Trading Systems, Part 1: Towards a New Merchandise Synthesis," Journal of Archaeological Research, Vol. 16, pp 339–395
7. ^ Bar-Yosef, O., "The Upper Paleolithic Revolution," Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 31, pp 363–393
8. ^ Alberti, G. Due east., "Merchandise and Weighing Systems in the Southern Aegean from the Early on Bronze Historic period to the Atomic number 26 Age: How Changing Circuits Influenced Global Measures," in Molloy, B. (ed.), Of Odysseys and Oddities: Scales and Modes of Interaction Between Prehistoric Aegean Societies and their Neighbours, [Sheffield Studies in Aegean Archaeology], Oxford, Oxbow, (East-Book), 2016
9. ^ Bintliff, J., "Going to Market in Antiquity," In Stuttgarter Kolloquium zur Historischen Geographie des Altertums, Eckart Olshausen and Holger Sonnabend (eds), Stuttgart, Franz Steiner, 2002, pp 209–250
10. ^ Shaw, Eastward.H., "Ancient and Medieval Marketing," Chapter two in: Jones, D. G. B. and Tadajewski, M., The Routledge Companion to Marketing History, Routledge, 2016, pp 23–24
11. ^ Bintliff, J., "Going to Market in Antiquity," In Stuttgarter Kolloquium zur Historischen Geographie des Altertums, Eckart Olshausen and Holger Sonnabend (eds), Stuttgart, Franz Steiner, 2002, pp 209–250: https://books.google.com/books?id=IAMK1952av4C
12. ^ Parker, John Henry (1876). "The Other Forums". The Forum Romanum. Oxford: James Parker & Company. p. 42. Retrieved 29 June 2019. The Forum Boarium was the cattle-market or Smithfield of ancient Rome [...].
13. ^ Coleman, P., Shopping Environments, Elsevier, Oxford, 2006, p. 28
14. ^ Shaw, Eric H. (2016). "ii: Aboriginal and medieval marketing". In Jones, D.One thousand. Brian; Tadajewski, Marking (eds.). The Routledge Companion to Marketing History. Routledge Companions. London: Routledge. p. 24. ISBN9781134688685 . Retrieved iii January 2017. Perhaps the only substantiated type of retail marketing practice that evolved from Neolithic times to the present was the afoot tradesman (besides known as peddler, packman or chapman). These forerunners of travelling salesmen roamed from village to village bartering stone axes in exchange for table salt or other appurtenances (Dixon, 1975).
15. ^ Stabel, P., "Guilds in Late Medieval Flanders: myths and realities of order life in an export-oriented environment," Periodical of Medieval History, vol. thirty, 2004, pp 187–212
16. ^ Rawlinson, G., History of Phoenicia, Library of Alexandria, 1889
17. ^ Cartwright, Grand., "Trade in the Phoenician World",World History Encyclopedia, ane April 2016
18. ^ Daniels (1996) p. 94–95.
19. ^ John Noble Wilford (13 November 1999) "Discovery of Egyptian Inscriptions Indicates an Earlier Appointment for Origin of the Alphabet", New York Times, <Online: https://www.nytimes.com/library/national/science/111499sci-alphabet-origin.html>
20. ^ Oka, R. and Kusimba, C.M., "The Archaeology of Trading Systems, Part i: Towards a New Merchandise Synthesis," The Archaeology of Trading Systems, Part 1: Towards a New Trade Synthesis," Journal of Archaeological Enquiry, Vol. sixteen, p. 359
21. ^ Tchernia, A., The Romans and Trade, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2016, Ch i
22. ^ Ashraf, A., "Bazaar-Mosque Alliance: The Social Basis of Revolts and Revolutions," International Periodical of Politics, Culture, and Society, Vol. 1, No. 4, 1988, pp. 538–567, Stable URL: JSTOR 20006873, p. 539
23. ^ "Decameron Web – Society". Brown.edu. Archived from the original on 1 March 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2017.
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Sources and further reading

• Adams Julia. The Familial State. Ruling Families and Merchant Capitalism in Early Modernistic Europe (Cornell University Press, 2005)
• Braudel, F. The Wheels of Commerce: Civilization and Capitalism, 15th to 18th Century (U of California Press, 1992)
• Burset, Christian R. "Merchant courts, mediation, and the politics of commercial litigation in the eighteenth-century British Empire." Police and History Review 34.3 (2016): 615–647. online
• Casson, Mark. The entrepreneur: An economic theory (Rowman & Littlefield, 1982). Influential scholarly survey
• Enciso, Agustín González. "The merchant and the mutual good: social paradigms and the state'south influence in Western history." in The Challenges of Capitalism for Virtue Ideals and the Mutual Good (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2016).
• Julien, Pierre-André, ed. The land of the art in small business organisation and entrepreneurship (Routledge, 2018).
• Lindemann, Mary. The Merchant Republics—Amsterdam, Antwerp, and Hamburg, 1648–1790 (Cambridge Upwards, 2015)
• Marsden, Magnus, and Vera Skvirskaja. "Merchant identities, trading nodes, and globalization: Introduction to the Special Issue." History and Anthropology 29.sup1 (2018): S1-S13. online
• Smith, Adam, "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (Bantam Classics, Annotated Edition, 4 March 2003) ISBN 978-0553585971
• Origo, Iris. The Merchant of Prato: Daily Life in a Medieval Italian City (Penguin Uk, 2017).
• Outhwaite, R. B. "Merchants and Gentry in North-East England, 1650–1830: The Carrs and the Ellisons." English Historical Review 115.462 (2000): 729–729.
• Persaud, Alexander. "Indian Merchant Migration within the British Empire." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. (2020)
• Thrupp, Sylvia L. (1989). The Merchant Class of Medieval London, 1300–1500. University of Michigan Printing. ISBN978-0-472-06072-6.
• Williams, E. N. "Our Merchants Are Princes": The English language Heart Classes In The Eighteenth Century" History Today (Aug 196) two, Vol. 12 Consequence eight, pp548–557.

External links

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